"Another type of nervousness": Technological social presence anxiety in AI-mediated VR language learning

Abstract

This study investigates how Japanese university students experience AI-mediated speaking practice in immersive virtual reality (VR) environments, focusing on affective adaptation and digital literacy. Using a within-subjects design, 17 English as a Foreign Language (EFL) learners participated in both human-peer and AI-chatbot interactions within Ovation VR (Ovation, 2024), a pre-generative public-speaking simulator. Quantitative data from digital literacy and perception surveys were triangulated with qualitative reflections to explore self-efficacy, comfort, and anxiety patterns. Findings revealed a moderate positive relationship between digital literacy and AI comfort (r = .34) and identified “another type of nervousness” a form of technological social presence anxiety arising from limited emotional feedback in AI interactions. Students with higher digital literacy exhibited greater self-regulation and adaptability, whereas lower-literacy learners reported confusion and discomfort. These results extend socio-technical learning theory by illustrating how affective and regulatory processes are co-produced through human–AI interaction, providing insight for culturally responsive AI integration in language education.